레이블이 Williams Funeral Home in Tuscaloosa Alabama인 게시물을 표시합니다. 모든 게시물 표시
레이블이 Williams Funeral Home in Tuscaloosa Alabama인 게시물을 표시합니다. 모든 게시물 표시

2013년 11월 25일 월요일

About 'tuscaloosa newspapers'|Rebranding: From Student to Community Newspaper







About 'tuscaloosa newspapers'|Rebranding: From Student to Community Newspaper








The               fallacy               of               "popularity"               or               "appeal               to               popularity"               refers               to               an               argument               form               whereby               something               is               justified               on               the               basis               of               the               fact               that               so               many               people               believe               it.

This               term               can               be               understood               broadly               enough               to               encompass               both               beliefs               and               behavior,               both               past               and               present.

Or,               alternatively,               is               can               be               understood               more               narrowly               to               refer               only               to               current               beliefs,               with               other               terms               being               used               for               the               others.
               If               we               use               the               term               in               the               latter,               narrower,               sense,               we               can               distinguish               four               different               such               argument               forms               and               label               them               as               follows:
               Popularity
               *               Premise:               x               is               widely               believed.


               *               Conclusion:               x               is               true.
               Traditional               wisdom
               *               Premise:               x               has               historically               been               widely               believed.


               *               Conclusion:               x               is               true.
               Common               practice
               *               Premise:               x               is               widely               done.


               *               Conclusion:               It               is               justified               to               do               x.
               Past               practice
               *               Premise:               x               has               historically               been               widely               done.


               *               Conclusion:               It               is               justified               to               do               x.
               Now               let's               look               at               some               examples               of               each               of               these               four               related               argument               forms:
               Popularity
               *               Premise:               Polls               indicate               80%               of               people               think               President               Mellish               will               seek               re-election.


               *               Conclusion:               President               Mellish               will               seek               re-election.
               Traditional               wisdom
               *               Premise:               Most               people               in               history               have               believed               their               consciousness               will               survive               in               some               form               after               death.


               *               Conclusion:               Our               conscious               self               will               still               exist               after               death.
               Common               practice
               *               Premise:               A               huge               number               of               people               in               the               world               use               some               form               of               mood-altering               or               mind-altering               substance,               such               as               alcohol,               marijuana,               tranquilizers,               etc.


               *               Conclusion:               There's               nothing               wrong               with               using               alcohol               or               drugs.
               Past               practice
               *               Premise:               People               have               eaten               meat               for               all               of               human               history.


               *               Conclusion:               Vegetarians               who               criticize               meat               eating               must               be               mistaken.
               An               important               point               that               needs               to               be               stressed               about               almost               all               types               of               fallacies               is               that               really               arguments               of               these               forms               can               be               anywhere               from               very               strong               to               very               weak,               and               thus               are               not               all               fallacious,               and               certainly               not               all               equally               fallacious.

Critical               thinking               requires               examining               an               argument               more               carefully               than               just               putting               a               label               on               it               and               concluding               that               that               establishes               that               it's               a               fallacy.
               So               once               we've               determined               that               the               evidence               being               offered               for               a               certain               claim               consists               of               an               appeal               to               its               popularity,               we               then               need               to               ask               how               much               support               that               really               provides,               because               that               will               differ               from               case               to               case.
               A               promising               way               to               approach               that               question               is               to               think               of               these               argument               forms               as               being               subsets               of               what               is               called               the               appeal               to               authority               argument               form,               wherein               one               is               being               asked               to               accept               a               claim               on               the               basis               of               the               reliability               of               the               source               asserting               it.

In               assessing               an               appeal               to               authority,               one               of               the               things               you               want               to               consider               is               how               likely               it               is               that               the               source               is               indeed               knowledgeable               and               trustworthy               in               this               area.
               So               for               the               argument               forms               under               discussion               in               this               article,               in               effect               we               can               ask               the               same               thing,               understanding               that               the               source,               or               "authority,"               for               the               claim               is               the               population               at               large               rather               than               some               specific               individual               or               institution.

Thus               we               want               to               know,               is               this               the               sort               of               thing               "the               masses"               likely               have               insight               into?
               Two               types               of               cases               come               to               mind               immediately               where               this               is               not               the               case,               where               the               popularity               of               a               position               is               of               little               relevance.
               One               would               be               where               specialized               knowledge               is               necessary.

For               example,               that               a               large               number               of               people               swear               by               some               folk               remedy               tells               me               little               or               nothing,               because               I               know               the               majority               of               lay               people               are               not               aware               of               the               scientific               method,               the               placebo               effect,               the               weakness               of               anecdotal               evidence,               etc.,               nor               are               they               likely               to               be               familiar               with               relevant               material               in               medical               journals               pertaining               to               the               matter               at               hand.

So               the               popular               opinion               simply               doesn't               deserve               much               weight,               compared               to               the               opinions               of               doctors               and               scientists.
               The               second               would               be               where               it's               dubious               that               anyone               really               knows               what               they're               talking               about.

For               example,               it               doesn't               impress               me               that               a               certain               percentage               of               people               believe               something               supernatural               will               occur               to               enable               us               to               survive               death,               because               I               can't               see               that               they'd               have               any               way               of               knowing               that.

Not               because               they               aren't               experts,               but               because               arguably               no               one's               an               expert,               no               one               knows               what               the               heck               happens               when               you               die.
               But               now               consider               a               contrasting               case               where               the               fact               that               a               belief               is               widespread               constitutes               a               very               strong               reason               to               accept               it.
               Let's               say               I               don't               watch               the               Super               Bowl               one               year.

But               afterwards,               I               come               across               person               after               person               saying               the               Tuscaloosa               Rambling               Rabbis               won.

Numerous               people               mention               it               to               me               in               conversation,               I               see               where               countless               people               have               written               it               in               books,               newspapers,               magazines,               online,               etc.

By               all               appearances,               it's               simply               common               knowledge               that               the               Rambling               Rabbis               won               that               year's               Super               Bowl.
               So,               my               only               evidence               that               the               Rambling               Rabbis               won               the               Super               Bowl               is               "everybody               says               so."               Well,               that's               excellent               evidence.

The               Super               Bowl               is               seen               by               millions               of               people,               and               the               winner               is               not               some               obscure               piece               of               information               that               is               hard               to               discern               or               that               people               are               inclined               to               lie               about.

This               is               a               case               where               you               can               trust               the               masses               to               be               accurate               in               their               belief.
               There               are               many               points,               of               course,               that               you               can               look               at               when               critically               assessing               arguments               of               any               of               these               forms,               in               order               to               determine               if               they               are               fallacies,               or               how               fallacious               they               are.

I'll               mention               one               more               as               an               example.
               Consider               now,               something               from               the               sub-category               "common               practice."               Let's               say               your               company               is               putting               together               a               new               phone               book.

Not               surprisingly,               you're               putting               the               entries               in               alphabetical               order.

Why               did               you               choose               that?

Because               that's               the               way               it's               always               done.
               So               the               reasoning               would               be               something               like               this:
               *               Premise:               Phone               books               are               always               in               alphabetical               order.


               *               Conclusion:               Our               phone               book               should               be               in               alphabetical               order.
               Is               this               sound               reasoning,               or               a               fallacy?

Should               we               care               that               this               happens               to               be               the               common               practice?
               I'd               say               common               practice               in               this               case               provides               a               very               strong               reason               to               organize               your               phone               book               alphabetically.

That's               because               you               want               your               phone               book               to               be               user-friendly,               and               an               important               element               in               achieving               that               is               giving               people               something               that               functions               the               way               they're               used               to,               the               way               that               happens               to               be               conventional.
               If               by               chance               phone               books               had               always               been               organized               by               some               other               principle,               then               you'd               probably               want               to               do               it               that               way               instead.

Again,               so               as               to               fit               people's               expectations               and               give               them               something               they               already               know               how               to               use               from               past               exposure.
               Which               is               not               to               say               it's               impossible               to               imagine               some               circumstances               in               which               it               would               be               justified               to               issue               a               phone               book               organized               in               something               other               than               the               established,               popular               way.

But               there               are               areas,               such               as               this,               where               the               main               considerations               are               pragmatic               ones,               and               where               common               practice               provides               at               the               very               least               a               strong               reason               in               favor               of               doing               something               a               certain               way.






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